Chapter 6

THE Global Appeal of Open CONTENT

Brecht’s works continue to thrive outside of his native Germany. The extent to which his plays and writings have spread throughout the world is rivaled only by the impact it has had on these same countries and cultures. He is renowned in the United States, China, the Philippines, India, Brazil, and Africa. Plays written by Brecht or that incorporate Brechtian ideals using recognizable techniques such as his alienation effects have increased in popularity and have become some of the more successful productions in these parts of the world. The people of these countries closely identify with the themes used in his productions, and the selections chosen from his works by the different staging companies also reflect economic and social conditions similar to those Brecht addressed during his lifetime.

While other Western theatrical productions have diminishing audience attendance in these same countries, Brecht’s works continue to be produced. One reason for his enduring popularity is that his plays are more malleable in their historical specificity and are easily transposed out of a typified Western genre into the region’s native culture and setting. The transplanted Brecht, in many cases, sees even greater success in those developing countries than he did in his lifetime. The characteristics typifying his works are synonymous with theatrical devices and customs of the Far East and Africa. Brecht’s refusal to provide closure, leaving his plays open-ended and always capable of extension[1] is fairly typical of many East Asian, Indian and African plays.[2] This and several other correlations between Brechtian theater and open source software help explain the rapid assimilation of both in emerging countries. This chapter examines some of the reasons why both Brecht and open source has a dedicated following in these and other lands. It looks at how both are being actively incorporated into the societal makeup of many developing countries.

The Open Source Model

With comparable speed and depth to that of Brecht’s plays, open source software is reaching locations and individuals that some commercial entities have not yet been able to exploit due to hardware and software costs. The emergence of free and open software in developing countries is quickly surpassing commercial software as third-world nations abandon expensive proprietary computer code in favor of open source. Its success cannot simply be justified by its lower cost since piracy of commercial applications is more rampant in Asia, the Pacific Rim and other poorer regions of the world than it is in developed countries.[3] This issue has been addressed by several major companies, but rather than attempt to work with developers in Third World nations they continue, much as they do those in developed lands, to treat the people here by forcing local governments to take extreme measures against those illegally copying software for redistribution. In some cases, such as in Malaysia, law enforcement officials turn a blind eye to illegal software distribution and may even assist in its distribution. This in spite of repeated calls by major companies to crack down on the theft, copying and sale of major software as well as audio and video recordings.

Nearly anyone can obtain an illegal copy of his or her favorite closed source operating system or application. This fact will not change. What is changing is the attitude of individuals worldwide in regards to their choice of software ideologies; whether they continue to embrace closed proprietary software and risk penalties for illegal distribution or whether a free and open alternative wins out. The success of open source in emerging nations can be attributed to its appeal as an independent and liberating means of software creation.[4] Developers feel liberated from stereotyped Western influences. With open source they have the freedom to create their own unique applications or operating systems free of the monopolistic and closed practices of Western software makers. Instead of simply buying a finished product, these same nations that are also adopting Brecht as one of their own are also embracing Linux and open source and remaking both to accommodate their own needs. China’s initial release of Red Flag Linux[5] in August of 1999, for example, is a reinvention of the widely successful North Carolina release of Red Hat Linux. This practice of reworking existing distributions is no different from the other popular Linux releases; Mandrake, White Hat Linux and several others, were initially based on Red Hat Linux. Like all open source software that falls under the GPL or General Public License anyone has the freedom to take existing software, refashion it, and release it and the modifications back to the public under a new name. Code developers also have the freedom to make software uniquely their own, adapting it to the tastes and personal preferences of the local clientele. Open source is appealing to many other cultures due to its manipulability, versus Western cultures and products being forced on the citizens of developing countries as have been done by other commercial entities.

Initially, Brecht’s works resembled the open source model. However, over time as his notoriety and reputation grew his works began to resemble the closed, proprietary model of software development. This is just one reason why his earlier works are still produced and staged today in other countries. Most Brechtian Lehrstücke require less funding than some of the well-known Western plays to both produce and manage. Many of the well-known Broadway productions require initial financial support in the millions of dollars for the costumes, sets, and props used in the production. As was shown in previous chapters using Brecht’s Lehrstücke as examples, Brecht initially emphasized the importance of reducing the amount of props and conventional stage accessories. Though some of Brecht’s later productions as performed by the Berliner Ensemble were lavish in the material and embellishments used on stage, his early works in Germany did minimize the amount of props and objects used during the productions. Some of Brecht’s later post-War plays, including those he performed at the Berliner Ensemble, were just as lavish as many contemporary Broadway productions. One might say that even Brecht’s own works had become “bloated” with each release,[6] each succeeding version having more “features”. These later productions of Brecht’s can be equated with some of the current proprietary, closed source software in use today. They are replete with enhancements intended more for marketing the product than for actual functionality. This is fairly typical of closed source applications. These superfluous additions or “bells and whistles” as they are called by hackers only slow down the program and encourage the purchase of the latest hardware.

Open source is designed with an attitude similar to that of Brecht’s learning plays. Rather than complying with current trends to design software with added amenities and further justify the need to purchase faster hardware, Linux and open source applications are designed to run better on slower equipment. This means that older discarded equipment can be put back in service and that hardware is not as quickly discarded, but has an increased lifespan. Developing nations who either cannot afford the latest technology or who are dependent on the surplus computer parts of developed countries can continue to operate with limited resources. Just as Brechtian Lehrstück productions use few props in stage preparation, thus emphasizing the performance itself rather than its physical appearance, so too does open source rely more on its functionality than glitz, hype or packaging. Brecht’s early works appeal to the average theatergoer for their portrayal of life on stage, its inexpensive price and the ability to do more with less. Open source also credits its popularity with the average user for its low cost and minimal hardware requirements.

Brecht’s Rise in Developing Countries

Brecht’s increasing popularity in developing countries can be attributed to several reasons. As stated earlier, one factor for his reputation among audiences in developing nations is the content of his plays. Brecht addresses everyday issues of the common man. He also takes up subject matter not normally visited by other playwrights. His stark portrayal of war’s distastefulness as shown in Mutter Courage und Ihre Kinder, the dominance of landowners over their farmhands in Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti along with his harsh interpretation of man’s coarse nature as depicted in Baal have been adapted by others in Third World nations. However, not all of Brecht’s plays are as widely successful in these regions as many might first believe. Nor are they all well received at the same time. Like all plays, those that tackle contemporary issues receive the most notice. Huang Zuolin mentions that his staging of Mutter Courage, which he thought would be very successful in his native China, was a failure, while twenty years later a rendition of Life of Galileo in Peking was wildly successful.[7] He attributes the latter play’s success to the public’s psychological readiness. The same holds true for current Brechtian productions worldwide. The peoples of developing countries are overwhelmed with the influx of American pop culture. The local interpretations of Brechtian theater and the blending of Brecht’s works into the local context provide social critiques of native governments and cultural stereotypes. Brecht’s most biting satirical works and stinging commentaries provide a vehicle for local producers to voice their dissent within an artistic framework. In many cases, Brecht’s works act as a medium by which producers provide commentary on social conditions.

In other instances Brecht’s works have been met with acclaim due to the similarity between folk productions or the manner in which interactive theatrical works are viewed. Because Brecht’s plays fit in well with local ideals, espousing similar political, socio-economic as well as educational views , his plays have gained popularity in many of the developing countries. According to Sandra Richards the people of Nigeria, for instance, place a high value on the art of story telling and consider it an esteemed talent. Here the narrator acts as a bridge between the audience and the players. He or she can help move the story along if attention wanes or slow down the action if the audience is enjoying the drama. Among the African peoples a dilemma tale where no resolution can be advanced is the more revered type of drama.[8] This style of performance shares similarities to many of Brecht’s plays where the potential for continuing the story is left up to the theatergoer. In fact, Brecht purposely left several of his plays incomplete or inconclusive so that audience members would have to draw their own conclusions or reason out the meaning behind the story.[9] Such is the case with Brecht’s learning play Der Jasager / Der Neinsager and in Brecht’s Der gute Mensch von Sezuan and Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder. The ending remains incomplete and is left to the audience’s interpretation.

Another reason for Brecht’s global acceptance is that his plays are often modified or adapted to better suit the local culture. The play Opera Wonyosi (1977) by the Nigerian author Soyinka was clearly influenced by Brecht’s Dreigroschenoper. It follows Brecht’s example and traits closely, though he indigenizes the drama to the African landscape. In it Soyinka offers a dispassionate critique of the European middle-class while also not sparing Nigeria from a critical assessment.[10] By adapting a European work to the local culture African authors are both critical of European influences, which shaped their civilization during the period of colonialism, while attempting to reform their own society. Brecht’s early critical works are examples as to how they may accomplish this.

Just as those plays that are adapted to local theatrical styles provide a framework for artists to voice criticism of social ills, they are also appealing to the producers on account of the limited resources required to bring the action to the stage. Without the enormous financial costs and overhead required by many of the more popular productions, Brechtian traits such as few props and decorations are easily and readily adopted to the stage in many resource-limited areas. In one Nigerian rendering of a Brechtian play, due to the excess amount of performers versus character parts, the actors and actresses themselves assumed the role of the props.[11] They became the hills, doorframes, verandas and other scenic elements. As the play progresses these elements are dismantled before the eyes of the audience as the characters take on the roles of different character parts. This disassembling of roles and scenery is in keeping with Brechtian performance where the stage usually has a stark background.

Another example of Brecht’s ready adaptation to other countries is his works’ ability to transpose themselves to fit native cultures. Themes commonly used by Brecht are adaptable into local plays and productions. There are several instances where producers have refashioned Brecht’s original texts and have laced them with native slang or jargon more familiar to the local listeners. In places such as Brazil, where regional dialects also play an important role in social class distinction, producers are quick to segregate individuals and arrange their roles in the production by accent, vocabulary and slang terminology. This is especially true of instances where the children’s regional dialects are allowed to permeate the context of the role.[12] Brecht considered it important that adults learn from the theatrical performances of children. In his work Der Messingkauf the actress states the following, “Und Erwachsene muß man von Kindern spielen sehen!”[13] She then goes on to say how she had seen one of Brecht’s own works performed by school children and how the “impossible” or “Unmöglichen” became “possible” or “möglich” and even plausible. The children’s conviction of their own roles carried the performance.

In several Brazilian theatrical workshops the Brechtian Gestus is compared to the works of other popular native authors. One of the more popular renditions of Brecht’s work in Brazil and during the 1990s was the play Baal, which was combined with the play by Joaquim Pedro de Andrade, Macunaima.[14] The students created parallels between Brecht’s theatrical pieces and indigenous plays. The native audiences easily recognized the gestures and positionings and the hero’s role as belonging to Andrade’s work. Like Brecht, Andrade typically utilizes a hero without a discernible character. These same traits were incorporated into the performances of Brecht’s works, thus increasing the play’s appeal to local audiences.

An important factor in the adoption of Brecht’s works and style in other countries is his lack of an expressed religious affiliation. Religion in Brecht’s mind is a belief in a tangible principle or cause.[15] He did not seek an awakening of the spiritual condition but worked to create a betterment of the physical condition. As he expressed in Der Ozeanflug, he identified closely with Lindbergh’s belief in self. The pilot’s explanation and view of religion is an abandonment of belief and a cleansing of spirit through technology. “Darum beteiligt euch / An der Bekämpfung des Primitiven / An der Liquidierung des Jenseits und / Der Verscheuchung jedweden Gottes, wo / Immer er auftaucht [...] Machen ihn verschwinden und / Jagen ihn zurück in das erste Jahrtausend”.[16] This same absence of organized religious faith appeals to most emerging nations using Brechtian techniques and material. There is no favoritism of one belief system over another. While anything connected with religion or spiritual matters was a red flag to Brecht, he still openly dealt with religious subjects in an ambivalent manner.[17] His plays are readily adaptable to Catholicism, Judaism, Hinduism, Muslim, etc. This open-ended quality is both attractive to those wishing to express a religious message or to those wishing to remain non-partial.

In certain African productions, some of Brecht’s plays have been so well received that the audience members spontaneously participate in the play itself. The distinction between audience and performer is lessened due to their intermingling both on stage and amidst the audience seating area. The performers welcome this participation and often incite the audience to social protest, all of which is in keeping with Brecht’s objectives that the theater be viewed as a social protest movement. The local practices also tie in with Brecht’s intention to remove any distinctions between actor and spectator. That the audience takes part in the performance and are moved to action works well with Brecht’s theory of his early “learning plays” that stipulated the participation of youth and audience alike.

The Embracing of Open Source

Similar to Brecht’s widespread growth among developing nations, open source software is fast becoming the preferred software by both citizens and governments who endorse its use and incorporation. This enthusiastic espousal of open software is not limited only to nations with less financial resources, but it appeals to developed countries as well. France and Germany, for example, have publicly refuted the licensing practices of companies like Microsoft that charge extravagant costs for minor upgrades and features.[18] According to a survey conducted by Microsoft, respondents in Germany and Japan responded favorably to open source and more than half of all German IT respondents expressed a great interest in broadly deploying Linux as a replacement to commercial applications.[19] Citing a growing trend among security analysts that closed source applications are more vulnerable to attacks and are prone to security holes, several countries in the European Union, led by France and Germany, have called for their respective governments to adopt Linux instead as the operating system of choice, insisting upon access to the code and a serious implementation of open source technology.[20] Many of the respective governmental ministries have already adopted open source for in-house use. One of the major Linux distributions, SuSE Linux,[21] was formerly based in Germany and still is the largest distributor of Linux throughout Europe. The same holds true of the popular Linux environment, KDE. The majority of developers are German and most work on that project is based in Germany. This widespread adoption and development within Europe itself holds promise for the future of open source. As European nations extract themselves from Microsoft’s stranglehold, these same governments continue to fund, support and adopt open source into their system.

India as an Archetype

Brecht drew upon or shared many parallels to standard practices found in theater throughout the world, such as the use of a narrator to emphasize points, limited use of stage props and display, a melding of audience with performers and a didactic staging of content. This might account for the popularity of Brecht’s plays in other nations and why they are so readily accepted and welcomed by others throughout the world. One location in particular that has used techniques similar to Brecht’s for several hundred years and has been quick to adapt his plays to their own purposes is the country of India.

Theatrical elements similar to those Brecht advocated are present in many native Indian productions. Traditional theatrical forms in Northern India, for example, are analogous to Brecht’s plays in several ways. The North Indian practice of rasa, normally associated with historical portrayals of religious figures, can be traced back to the sixth century A.D. Even older forms are evident in practices dating back to the 2^nd and 3^rd century B.C. As an art form rasa was nearly lost in the 19^th century, but thanks to the efforts of researchers during the British occupation, it was revived as a theatrical practice.[22] After the Second World War rasa theater gained in popularity among the working classes. In the early 1950s it was termed “naturalism” and has since become a major political movement. It stressed the movement towards older traditional Indian theatrical forms, which, in a caste-based culture, helped break through societal restrictions.

One cannot refute the fact that Brecht drew upon elements present in many older theatrical works. However, his original intent may not have been that his plays share a universal appeal. Brecht wrote in 1936 that he did not believe that his plays could be implemented everywhere.

Es setzt außer einem bestimmten technischen Standard eine mächtige Bewegung im sozialen Leben voraus, die ein Interesse an der freien Erörterung der Lebensfragen zum Zwecke ihrer Lösung hat und dieses Interesse gegen all gegensätzlichen Tendenzen verteidigen kann.[23]

Brecht’s opinions were based on his own theories and did not take into account existing practices that already resembled his techniques. There are many repeated claims that Brechtian theater resembles certain folk traditions in India.[24] Since the renewal of rasa among the Indian people in the mid-1950s, many similarities between it and Brechtian theater have come to light.

Both theatrical forms share many commonalities in methodology and manner of execution. Rasa theater is mostly musical and stresses the slow development of a story line with long, drawn-out action and a gradual buildup of emotion. The use of a narrator in rasa resembles Brecht’s adoption of a chorus or title-projection, which bridge the gap between the audience and the performers. Brecht also uses a narrator “to clarify the determining relationships in historical processes”[25] which remains the main focus of rasa theater. But, unlike Brecht, in rasa theater the individual is pitted against social or metaphysical odds, while the established order is not finally questioned, whether ethically or socially.[26] The “I” is not presented in conflict with the “We”. Together the two form a plurality. There is a lack of individual conflict where the attitude of the characters to each other is not so much determined by personal or individual conflict as by the social Gestus or the relationship of master to slave.[27] This represents one of the major themes of Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti, which enjoyed acceptance in Indian productions. The Indian caste system forms a unique cultural background against which this play is set. The importance of dramatic continuity is replicated in both Indian folk theater and Brechtian productions. Both stress the possibility of story continuance even after the drama has concluded.[28] According to Walter Hinck, Brecht’s plays do not have a definitive ending that is enforced by the structure of the play.[29] Rather, they demonstrate a necessity for “continuability” or Fortsetzbarkeit even after the play is over, as shown in the Epilogue to Der gute Mensch von Sezuan.

As India continues to embrace rasa and ras lila theatrical performances and as they continue to evolve, so, too, does their acceptance of Brecht’s own theatrical works grow. For the Indian people rasa is a form of emancipation. Acceptance of a Westerner’s work and its incorporation into their own drama helps in their rediscovery of rasa. Brecht is a reaffirmation of a national heritage compatible with modernity. The reintroduction of these native plays into the Indian mainstream has made it easier for Indians to accept Brecht as one of their own and more willing to produce his plays. Though rasa has yet to develop roots among the more affluent of society, still appealing to the lower classes, it has shown itself to be very flexible in interpretation and application. It stresses many political possibilities like Brecht’s own works. In a country still torn by societal strife and class segregation due to a caste-system of privileges, Brechtian theater and rasa can transform the audience through performance.[30] Both can also emancipate themselves from close interpretation, Marxist or otherwise.

Just as India has been quick to adopt Brecht’s plays and identify them as its own, so too has its acceptance of open source software taken a much greater precedence over other Western imports. Open source software has become widely accepted and favored over proprietary software in India. This adaptation is due not only to the flexibility in packaging and distribution, but also to its interaction with native resources. India has historically lacked the financial resources to purchase expensive software. Instead it has turned to its own developers in creating a distinctly native code. With the introduction of the Linux operating system and the growth of open source, even the Indian government has recently passed legislation encouraging the use and adoption of free and open software.

Many children in India do not have computers or access to the Internet as opposed to their Western counterparts due to the widespread poverty in much of India. This so-called “digital divide” is finally being breached through the use of cheap, alternative software such as open source, Linux and discarded hardware from Western companies. As India continues in its digital learning experience, it finds only open source readily addresses its needs without incurring a large financial cost. In the “Kalkaji Experiment”, otherwise known as the “Hole-in-the-Wall” experiment by Dr. Sugata Mitra under the auspices of NIIT,[31] a computer terminal was placed in the wall separating the NIIT premises from the neighboring slum. The slum contained a large population of children ages 0-18 years of age. Some of these children do not attend school, and those few who are enrolled in instructional courses go to government schools, which lack resources, good teachers and student motivation. Nearly all the children in the slum had physical access to the computer terminal. Only a screen and mouse were accessible to the children, who were not particularly familiar with the English language. But they were able to quickly pick up on basic phrases and instructions and quickly became proficient in learning to use and navigate the interface.

Within three months of opening this “Internet kiosk” researchers found that the children, mostly from the slum, had achieved a certain level of computer skills without any planned instructional intervention. They were able to browse the Internet, download songs, go to cartoon sites and work on various painting programs. They even invented their own vocabulary to define terms on the computer. For example they used various terminologies such as “sui” (needle) for the cursor, “channels” for websites and “damru” (Shiva’s drum) for the hourglass (busy) symbol. By the fourth month the children were able to discover and accomplish tasks like creating directories, managing shortcuts, moving and resizing windows and cutting and pasting words from Internet pages within text editors to create short messages. All of this was accomplished without a keyboard. When the issue of whether the kiosk should be removed from the boundary wall arose, the children strongly opposed the idea. The parents also felt that the computer was beneficial for the children. The kiosk continues to be operational with approximately eighty children using it per day. The use of free and open software on this and related projects makes possible the kiosks that benefit the children. The continued adoption of open source provides the opportunity of educating India’s poor. When viewed as an educational tool this open source kiosk is analogous in many ways to Brecht’s own views on instructing students through hands-on interaction. Viewing the computer terminal as a type of stage or theatrical format, the children found their own “center” and adopted it to their use.

Even as recently as November 2002 India announced its growing intention of adopting open source as the industry and government standard. Just prior to a visit by Bill Gates, the former President of Microsoft, officials in India’s Department of Information Technology in New Delhi leaked details of an effort called the Linux India Initiative. It is meant to promote Linux as a viable alternative to proprietary-based software for use in government departments, state governments and corporations. Unlike neighboring China, where the government actively promotes open source software, India’s democracy makes it difficult for the government to decree a blanket software policy. The pending changes and encouragement of adoption of open source can only be explained by its success in the fields of education and business in India. Comparable cost and stability may never be matched by any proprietary solution.

Brazil’s Acceptance of Open Works

The merging of Brechtian theater and the Brazilian culture, while incorporating various native elements into their performances, is another example of Brecht’s works being staged throughout the world. By utilizing native theatrical forms, the Brazilian adaptation of Brechtian attitudes creates versions of Brecht’s plays uniquely their own. The ideologies Brecht incorporated in his plays are particularly adaptable to the Brazilian culture. Much like India, Brazil had existing conventions that matched Brecht’s works.

One of the more appealing features of Brecht’s works to Brazilians is his utopian vision. During the mid-60s when Brechtian theater was reaching the pinnacle of its popularity, the Brazilians were in the midst of realizing their own utopian dreams. Work had begun on moving the capital of Brazil to Brasilia, a new city being constructed in the Amazonian rainforest. The planning of the city’s layout and associated architecture were all utopian in design and vision. Brazil hoped to achieve the ideal city-state in their new capital. Here the political system would merge with the social and economic system. Class distinction would be erased, as all levels of society would be allowed free access and mingling within the city, thus fulfilling Brecht’s own utopian vision of a classless society.[32] Brasilia epitomized the Brazilian utopian ideal and became the focal point of their theatrical endeavors that attempted to emulate the same utopian vision.

One major Brechtian element that found root in Brazilian performances was audience members’ active participation in Brechtian performances. Though they have not taken as great a role in the production as in other Brechtian performances in places such as Africa, where the narrator would actively elicit audience input,[33] Brazilian audiences still closely identified with Brechtian plays. One of the original productions of Der Ozeanflug was performed in a theatrical workshop at the “Escola de Communicaçoes e Artes” funded by the University of São Paulo. Students took the performance directly to the public by performing at an old train station in Antonina in the Brazilian state of Paraná. Here five actors played the role of the pilot while the 15 workshop participants acted out the parts of the natural elements. During the performance the audience was brought directly into the performance and made participants in the drama.[34]

Brazilians have been equally receptive to the influence of open source software, which has so permeated their information technology that they consider certain aspects of Linux uniquely Brazilian and present them as such to the world. Brazilians pride themselves on the Brazilian Linux “flavors” such as Connectiva Linux, Console Linux and TechLinux, all of which are developed in Brazil and are widely used. Brazilians are more receptive to local software alternatives than to the importation of mainstream varieties. For example, though much of the world has standardized on KDE and GNOME as the desktop environments of choice, the Brazilian window manager WindowMaker remains the most popular application among their releases. Alfredo Kojima, a Brazilian native, is the lead developer of the WindowMaker window manager. His work has become the basis for much of the related Brazilian software development.[35]

Both Brecht and open source appear poised for ready adaptation by emerging nations seeking to enlarge their own cultural and scientific communities. Both Brechtian techniques as well as open source are easily incorporated into existing frameworks. Brecht’s plays relate in many ways to existing performance techniques, while they also lend themselves readily to modification for use in the adoptive country. Open source is extremely pliable and can be nationalized for re-distribution. Any Western stigmas normally associated with imported and proprietary software are disassociated when dealing with open source and operating systems such as Linux.

In conclusion, both Brecht and open source software are widely accepted in many parts of the world, particularly in developing nations. This is due to the simplistic yet appealing nature of both works. Brecht’s plays are easily adapted to suit the native culture and address many of the social ills. Open source software appears a quick solution to remedy the prohibitive costs of proprietary software. Plus, it operates on many of the older, antiquated machines still in use in these parts of the country. Both Brecht’s plays and open source are attractive to many of the emerging countries since both allow the local peoples to express their individual character without subverting themselves to typical Western influences. Open source is easily adopted and translatable to the local customs. Brecht’s plays are enjoyed by local audiences on account of similar or pre-existing theatrical tendencies. It is foreseeable that both genres, theater and computer code, will enjoy continued success over the next several years on account of their appeal to the local peoples.