Chapter 2

Brecht’s Use of technology

Brecht hoped through the incorporation of radio and technology into his plays, particularly in his Lehrstücke, he might democratize and revolutionize the theater of his day. A profound interest and hope in technology’s progress dominated the interests of the many groups using radio at that time.[1] Brecht was party to this same belief. The radio was still relatively new and had not yet become corrupted by commercial interests. However, it was being used as a propaganda tool of many political parties, in which the communists were most active.[2] Brecht saw in radio a greater purpose and possibility. According to him it held the possibility of great portent for his plays. “Deshalb ist der Rundfunk, eine technische Erfindung, die sich das Bedürfnis der Masse erst schaffen und nicht sich einem schon abgenutzten alten Bedürfnis unterwerfen muß, eine große und fruchtbare Chance für unsere Stücke”.[3]

His radio plays, in turn, were to have a profound effect on his later accomplishments. In the words of Werner Milch, “das Hörspiel verwirklicht … das epische Drama”.[4] These early works of Brecht’s would lay the foundation for his epic theater.[5] Some might even argue that Brecht’s theatrical technique contained some mechanical overtones. Aside from radio the actors carried out their roles in a mechanical fashion, “er unterstreicht das Technische und behällt die Haltung des bloß Vorschlagenden bei … bringt der Schauspieler seinen Text nicht wie eine Improvisation, sondern wie ein Zitat”.[6]

This chapter examines how Brecht saw radio as a tool for effective communication and how technology played a significant role in Brecht’s writings and productions. His initial learning play, Der Ozeanflug, was a prime example of how he envisioned radio’s use for instructional purposes. Each element used in his learning plays; radio, sound effects and music were designed to push this new educational form of theater forward. A close analysis of this particular play explains how Brecht accomplished this. This chapter also looks at the ideologies present in open source software that are comparable to Brecht’s use of technology.

Radio as an Instructional Medium

Throughout his life, Brecht incorporated new ideas into his works and utilized emerging technologies to his advantage. He was also known for the novel techniques he included in his Epic Theater where social conditions were “represented” and not simply “reproduced”. He accomplished this by presenting the traditional attitudes and conventions on stage and then rendering them in a strange or alienating fashion.[7] These distancing elements and non-traditional devices within the plays’ performances became known as Brechtian V-Effekte or Verfremdung techniques.[8] Along with this unique style, Brecht expressed a great interest in utilizing new technologies in his plays, dramas and musicals for the purpose of enhancing their impact on the audience.

The inclusion of technology and science within his writings is a concept Brecht employed often. In Der Messingkauf Brecht juxtaposed a Dramaturg or theatrical advisor against a philosopher as a method of discussing the elements of theatrical performance. Throughout the dialogue they use examples of scientific methods as a means of supporting their arguments. These range from the famous experiment of Pavlov’s dog and how a ringing bell caused salivation,[9] to a brief lesson in physics where the very act of examining an object affects its state of being or an experiment’s outcome.[10] The arguments put forth by the characters allow Brecht to showcase his own views on performance theory. One of his more important statements regarding the use of science within stage production includes the following:

Das Theater, das mit seinem V-Effekt eine solche staunende, erfinderische und kritische Haltung des Zuschauers bewirkt, ist, indem es eine Haltung bewirkt, die auch in den Wissenschaften eingenommen werden muß, noch kein wissenschaftliches Institut. Es ist lediglich ein Theater des wissenschaftlichen Zeitalters.[11]

Likewise, Brecht mentions later that science searches in all possible fields for experimental possibilities or ways in which to solve problems, “Die Wissenschaft sucht auf allen Gebieten nach Möglichkeiten zu Experimenten oder platischen Darstellungen der Probleme.”[12] The inclusion of science and technology within theatrical performances was a logical step for Brecht.

Initially, Brecht expressed wonder at the prospect of radio and the possibilities it contained. However, he also recognized that the manner in which this media was employed in practice was far beneath its capabilities, citing it as more an opiate for the masses than as a constructive and educational tool. In his treatise Radiotheorie Brecht initially assumed an aggressive stance against the method in which radio was implemented, stating that it was not so much the technology he found offensive as the content it carried. [13] He recognized the inherent potential and possibilities radio held, yet its method of utilization was to him banal. Brecht posed the question whether radio was even a practical medium for all the “possibilities” (Möglichkeiten) available in a theatrical piece’s performance. This same feeling is evident in many of his other writings where the capacity to accomplish a given task is not as important to Brecht as is the crucial pedagogical element placed in the minds of the listeners and viewers.

Instead of simply broadcasting music and mundane news items through the radio receiver, Brecht stated that radio should be leveraged as a means of democratizing its listeners. It provided evidence as to the current dilapidated state of theatrical affairs in Brecht’s day.[14] Yet it also held the potential to educate its audience. In Brecht’s opinion, this media format could become a leveling tool granting all classes of society access to the same information. Brecht intended for radio to be the channel through which one heard and experienced actual occurrences rather than audible reproductions of these same events. “...Sie müssen mit den Apparaten an die wirklichen Ereignisse näher herankommen und sich nicht nur auf Reproduktionen oder Referate beschränken lassen”.[15] It was for this purpose that Brecht wrote his radio plays and subsequent Lehrstücke, so they would instruct and inform. As expressed by Brecht himself, a play possesses no value as art, which would justify any performance not intended for learning, or that the play, “… besitzt keinen Kunstwert, der eine Aufführung rechtfertigt, die diese Schulung nicht bezweckt”.[16]

Brecht saw in radio an immediate application; a medium for publicizing government corruption. Instead of granting bureaucrats time to think of lies for newspaper editorials, Brecht felt they should be accountable at a minute’s notice to answer for their actions. Radio interviews would not provide them the time to formulate lies and deceptions. They should instead provide immediate answers. In other words, Brecht was of the opinion real-time accountability would lead to responsibility. He goes on to say in his Radiotheorie that the medium of radio should also offer a format in which open discussions among political entities could be shared by all. In his opinion, pedagogical opportunities are possible by means of art and radio, “Kunst und Radio sind pädagogischen Absichten zur Verfügung zu stellen”.[17]

Brecht initially intended for several of his plays to be transposed into radio Lehrstücke. While he was composing Der Ozeanflug he was also working on the play Die heilige Johanna der Schlachthöfe. He had originally intended this piece to be performed as a radio production. However, it was with the learning play Der Ozeanflug that many of his theories regarding radio’s pedagogical applications took physical form on stage. Accompanied with a musical score written by Kurt Weill and Paul Hindemith, which qualified the work as a musical listening play or “radiophonische Kantate”[18], Brecht was able to test his composition using this newly emerging media. In the Erläuterungen that followed his text Der Lindberghflug, Brecht clarifies how both the speaker and the technical apparatus work together to create a new approach or Haltung in which the performance may be interpreted. According to Brecht, one of the pedagogical purposes of the play was as follows:

...der Übende ist Hörer des einen Textteiles und Sprecher des anderen Teiles. Auf diese Art entsteht eine Zusammenarbeit zwischen Apparat und Übenden, wobei es mehr auf Genauigkeit als auf Ausdruck ankommt. Der Text ist mechanisch zu sprechen und zu singen, am Schluß jeder Verszeile ist abzusetzen, der abgehörte Teil ist mechanisch mitzulesen.[19]

The emphasis was no longer on an individual’s interpretation, but restricted to a specific set of rules and guidelines. A new artistic form was created by the lack of self-expression. The artistry within this performance found its basis in the mechanical methodology of the performance, which bound it to the technological reproduction of the radio as an on-stage character.

Brecht also exposed society’s ills through the medium of radio and by using Marxist ideals. According to his interpretation, technology remained a positive and productive influence. Using it he was able to reach more people than from the stage alone. As Brecht envisioned it, radio might provide the education for people through a didactic and shared process. The purpose of Der Ozeanflug was not to stereotype radio’s use and condone its format, but rather was meant to alter the nature of radio altogether. As Brecht himself states, “Dem gegenwärtigen Rundfunk soll der ‘Ozeanflug’ nicht zum Gebrauch dienen, sondern er soll ihn verändern” (emphasis Brecht’s).[20]

Brecht used both radio and film to remove any form of sensationalism from his stage productions. He foresaw new possibilities inherent in these media formats and quickly adapted them to his own purposes. In his early learning play, Der Ozeanflug, Brecht’s intention behind the inclusion of non-traditional elements such as the radio, songs, choir, and mechanical sounds was for them to act as an “exercise” or Übung for those watching and listening. Their pedagogical task was to both lead and interrupt the play’s continuity. Rather than have individual performers execute this function, Brecht used a mechanical apparatus to guide the play. In Brecht’s words, “…d.h. einzuleiten und zu unterbrechen, was am besten durch einen Apparat geschiet.”[21] Brecht allowed technology to take the stronger of the two roles, while the performer’s own recitation mimicked the mechanical qualities of the radio. The absence of self expression shared a unique quality with that of other technologies; there was a distinct lack of subjective interpretation. As Brecht states, “tun ist besser als fühlen”.[22] The play itself could be performed in a purely objective fashion and reproduced again in the same manner.

Technology in Brecht’s Learning Plays

Brecht scripted several learning plays showcasing the possibilities inherent in the use of radio as a medium. His first instructional play, Der Flug der Lindberghs which later became Der Ozeanflug, had a specific didactic function as noted by Brecht in the title’s sub-heading, “Ein Radiolehrstück für Knaben und Mädchen”. [23] Using radio as his primary means of instruction Brecht showcased certain technological achievements, which represent a furthering of Brecht’s pedagogical ideals.

Brecht used an historical event as the basis for this particular learning play. It describes the first trans-Atlantic solo crossing by airplane, which was considered by many an impossibility at that time. Brecht clearly intended this radio play to be didactic as he related Charles Lindbergh’s solo crossing of the Atlantic on the 21st of May 1927. It incorporated several pedagogical elements aimed at a young audience including the use of repetition, simple phrases and as well as giving voice to natural elements and machinery. Der Ozeanflug was first recognized and classified as a Lehrstück in 1930.[24] Brecht based much of the play’s pedagogical functions on ideas that others had voiced in Brecht’s time. Rudolf Frank had called for radio to place poets in closer contact with listeners, “der Dichter trete ‘in eine ganz enge, fast private Verbindung mit dem Hörer’”.[25] Others, who felt as Brecht did, thought radio held the potential to help democratize the community of listeners. These included Alfred Döblin and Carl Hagemann. Radio was also considered a powerful instrument by which political messages could be quickly carried to the people. It represented an opportunity to bridge the gap between artistic literature and the people, or the “Riesenkluft zwischen der eigentlich schon überartistischen Literatur und der großen Volksmasse”.[26] This would not be the only new media that saw a potential to circumvent the divide between knowledge and the people using technology.

Brecht’s fascination with technology at this point in his life was a movement against bourgeois sentimentality. It stood more as a proof of Brecht’s own interest in Neue Sachlichkeit. According to Jan Knopf’s citation, “insofern sei das Stück ein Beweis für Brechts neusachliche Phase, die alle Mystifizierung (vor allem durch Religion) ablehne und das ‘rationale wissenschaftliche Verhalten’ verteidige”.[27] Around 1932 is when Brecht broke rank with others regarding the primary use and objective of radio. He formulated his own theory as to radio’s use that was less revolutionary as it was educational.[28]

Brecht himself divides the play into two halves; the one part containing the elemental sounds, the chorus, the sound of the motor, all of which move the play forward, interrupting it at times. The other is the speaking portion of the pilot or Flieger. Brecht states that the accuracy of that which acted out on stage is more important than the expression itself, “wobei es mehr auf Genauigkeit als auf Ausdruck ankommt”.[29] All subsequent interactions are what form the basis of the play and reflect Brecht’s attitude of that time. His views on radio’s applicability to the learning process also underlie his view of technology. The use of radio and the mechanical apparatus accompanying the performance are not meant to better convey this play to the listener but to change and activate those in attendance. In Brecht’s words, he sought to elicit a rebellion on the part of the audience, enticing them to become producers themselves.

Die zunehmende Konzentrationen der mechanischen Mittel, sowie die zunehmende Spezialisierung in der Ausbildung - Vorgänge, die zu beschleunigen sind - erfordern eine Art Aufstand des Hörers, seine Aktivisierung und seine Wiedereinsetzung als Produzent.[30]

The play itself also shares many similarities with other open source trends, including, as mentioned earlier, its mechanical qualities and lack of subjective interpretation. Several elements within the play have corresponding characteristics in computer-related operations.

Der Ozeanflug as a Commentary on Radio

Brecht’s play Der Ozeanflug marks the use of a radio as a new pedagogical medium. The play illustrates the accomplishments of an individual who triumphs with the support of colleagues and comrades. The pilot or Flieger credits not only his own willpower, but also the mechanics and engineers who helped construct his plane. He also acknowledges the plane itself as helping him overcome the long flight. These facets of the play are informative as they provide insight into Brecht’s concept of human interaction with technology; that they can and should work together in furthering an ideal or for the purposes of instruction.

The play itself is divided into 17 scenes, in which the number of participants does not exceed two voices. The characters themselves are not identifiable as any named or specific individuals. Even the pilot, who is readily identifiable as Charles Lindbergh, is never called by name. Indeed, only the plane itself and a ship are mentioned by their proper titles, Geist von St. Louis and Empress of Scotland. Only once is the pilot’s given name mentioned, “Schlafe nur, Charlie”, and then it is only an indirect reference to his identity. The pilot points out this fact in the first line of the third scene, “Mein Name tut nichts zur Sache”. In other words, names in general are inconsequential to the format or content of the play. The voices are representative of archetypes rather than particular people or individuals. Indeed, any pioneer of great achievements is not alone but stands as a representative of a communal work. According to Brecht, “der moderne Pionier ist nicht mehr allein …, er ist nurmehr Repräsentant einer gemeinschaftlichen Arbeit”.[31] This allows the listeners to better identify with those voices or personages.

The very structure of Der Ozeanflug is aimed towards youthful listeners for purpose of instruction. Indeed, Brecht himself stated that when a learning play is performed it must be done as though children were playing the roles, “Wenn ihr ein Lehrstück aufführt, müßt ihr wie Schüler spielen”.[32] The sentences are simple and forceful, with limited punctuation. According to Werner Milch, “Dem Hörspiel is also gar keine Wahl gelassen: es muß Lehrstück sein, so gewiß es wertvolle Inhalte bergen muß”.[33] The music is also intended for singing within a school class. As it is sung by children it carries with it a feeling, “Frischweifende Gefühle anläßlich von Musik … indem er sie für sich oder im Verein mit anderen singt (Schulklasse)”.[34] The pilot’s reaction to each new challenge is also instructional as he constantly refers back to his comrades, the machinery itself and his own inner strength for support. However, the technology is not the final goal. Its purpose is to help come to a realization of one’s own limitations. As the pilot overcomes the obstacles known in his path by nature he becomes self-aware, or according to Knopf, “… in der Naturbeherrschung findet sich der Mensch.”[35]

How the radio is used in the play works not only as a form of self-critique for the listeners, while providing a means of communication between the lone pilot, the forces of nature and those below him either in ships or on the ground, but it also keeps the play’s focus centered within the cockpit. Tension revolves around the pilot and he becomes the object of attention and the embodiment of all fears and expectations. As the pilot himself expresses, “Also kämpfe ich gegen die Natur und / Gegen mich selber.” The interaction of the pilot with the machinery and elements contributes to the play’s added tension. Technology brings about self-realization. According to Knopf, “die Technik is nicht Selbstzweck, sie wird nicht einseitig und einfach verherrlicht, sie gilt vielmehr der Selbsterkenntnis der Menschen”.[36]

One of the basic characteristics of a learning play is the emphasis on the actual text and its method of presentation, rather than relying on physical embellishments that might detract from the play’s purpose. During the initial performance on the 27^th of July 1929 only a few items were present on stage; the radio on the one side and the pilot on the other.[37] Brecht employed other audio devices to deliver the play’s message rather than using visual cues from the actors on stage. The airplane’s radio was one of the most coherent technologies conveying a theme or purpose and became a centerpiece in the performance, focusing the audience’s attention on the central character and eliminating the need for additional staging or props. The play concentrated on the auditory rather than visual, hence the increased use of sound and vocal elements. The audience, whether present or listening via their own radio, is equally attuned and no one group was favored over another as the intended recipient. As Brecht stated in his Radiotheorie regarding the production of Der Ozeanflug and the use of technology, “Dies ist ein Modell für eine neue Verwendung ihrer Apparate”.[38] His concept of radio’s new use involved a dialogue between those who speak and those who listen. In Brecht’s opinion radio no longer constituted a one-sided discussion.

The learning play, as Brecht envisioned it, also served a didactical function. Der Ozeanflug, for example, can be interpreted as a diatribe against ignorance. The pedagogical message here is the acceptance of new ideas and how they benefit humanity. Radio operates as a means of communication to us as listeners. Within the play, however, as Lindbergh’s conversations with the natural elements progress, they become increasingly one-sided, his radio limits the pilot’s communication with others. Soon, only the pilot is heard speaking to the water and the motor. This one-sided conversation represents Brecht’s attitude towards the use of radio at this time, that abuse by those in power of radio as a medium left the listener both mute and dumb. The pilot’s own inability to establish communication with others is analogous to the trend of radio productions, which Brecht was attempting to alter.

The characters within the play are representative of Brecht’s own struggles with attitudes of his time. How radio should be used and its method of instruction was a fiercely debated issue at the conception of this production.[39] Each natural element within Der Ozeanflug represents a physical embodiment of Brecht’s own struggle against societal norms that limited the acceptance of his concept of radio’s possibilities. The fog implies the blindness of men towards radio and technology’s ultimate potential. They hear only the common chords of music, dampening their sensitivity to other more subtle applications of sound, as represented by the sounds of the snowstorm. Or as Brecht puts it, “Nichts ist ungeeigneter als die alte Oper, die auf die Erzeugung von Rauschzuständen ausgeht…”[40] Sleep represents the complacency of the general populace. They are unconscious of radio’s greater potential.

In all, Der Ozeanflug is a carefully crafted play, intended for listeners of all ages. However, Brecht focused his attention on youth, for there he saw the greater potential for success, children and youth being yet malleable and able to espouse his ideals before they were too set in their ways. The principles behind Brecht’s learning play can also be applied to adults alike in their instructional method. By staging a well-documented historical event, the performance carefully directs the listener to formulate new ideas about human relationships and the will of the individual over self and others. The play credits the average man, while also encouraging the audience to adulate the hero. Der Ozeanflug utilized the new medium of radio as a method of social criticism while also emphasizing the emergence of a heroic figure.

Similarities in Open Source

There are several components within Der Ozeanflug that are comparable to open source software. Several of the key factors identified by Brecht within the radio play and within his theories regarding radio’s true purpose have either been realized in current open software practices or show a profound similarity to open source software’s current use. These are much more than chance parallels. Rather, Brecht recognized crucial elements in emerging technology and in its potential implementation during his lifetime. These same technologies have since matured and grown beyond what Brecht might have imagined. In many ways, they are the realization of Brecht’s own Marxist ideology.

One of the first parallels is between Brecht’s theory of radio and how it should actually operate and the current network of computers worldwide, better known as the Internet or “World Wide Web”. Brecht’s frustration with radio lay in the fact that it was entirely one-sided. He wished radio to function more as a transceiver as it did in the airplane where a conversation was possible. No dialogue or bilateral conversation was available to Brecht using the technology of his time. Radio simply passed along the speech or sounds of those controlling the transmission.

Aber ganz abgesehen von seiner zweifelhaften Funktion (wer vieles bringt, wird keinem etwas bringen), hat der Rundfunk eine Seite, wo er zwei haben müßte. Er ist ein reiner Distributionsapparat, er teilt lediglich zu.[41]

Brecht envisioned radio as a communications device rather than a distribution apparatus. “Ein Vorschlag zur Umfunktionierung des Rundfunks: Der Rundfunk ist aus einem Distributionsapparat in einen Kommunikationsapparat zu verwandeln”.[42] If the radio could receive as well as send, then it might facilitate listeners to take part in conversations, “also den Zuhörer nicht nur hören, sondern auch sprechen zu machen und ihn nicht zu isolieren, sondern ihn in Beziehung zu setzen”.[43] One can only imagine what Brecht might have done had he had today’s technology at his disposal. The debates that rage throughout the Internet on every subject might have fulfilled Brecht’s vision of a forum where viewers, listeners and performers could debate the merits of theatrical performances.

Brecht’s dream of a technological dialogue between the sender and listener has been nearly reached with the advancement of networking technologies. Raw data transfer rates among business and home computers has made it possible for regular individuals to communicate with anyone on the planet. This has affected news reporting, radio communications and the simple dispersal of information. Utilities such as “email” or electronic mail and instant messaging (IM) allow users to instantly contact another person, whether it is a friend or a news source or even a political figure.

Just as Brecht may have hoped, the creation of WANS or “wide area networks” facilitated by high speed bandwidth connections has brought about an equalizing effect on all parties. The average worker has the same opportunity to make his or her voice heard as do those empowered by large corporations. Even the latest trend in Internet web-logging or “blogging” shifts the focus back on the individual while remaining critical of information dispersed by corporations or commercial organizations. Electronic journal entries or “blogs” of average Internet users have reached cult popularity. The focus has shifted back to the layman for establishing a dialogue among others of the same group.

Brecht’s concept of an ideal radio broadcast has come to fruition. Private broadcasts have become commonplace. Even a home computer user can voice his or her opinion over an Internet-base radio. These network-based media have become extremely competitive, marking out a share of the Internet as their own. Commercial radio stations have had to adjust their own selection and include additional features to their broadcast in order to keep market share and remain profitable. With an inexpensive personal computer and a relatively fast connection to other networked machines, anyone can set up a broadcasting station. Novice users present original music selections, community discussions and even selected reading from works. Similar to what ham radios offered in the early 50s and 60s, independent stations such as these can be operated out of an individual’s home and do not fall under Government regulation. As such, a free exchange of music files and software programs are also distributed in a sub-culture known as Peer-to-Peer (P2P) file sharing. This trend entirely subverts licenses, fees and ownership restrictions normally found in commercial markets. The proliferation of so many “free” applications and data has narrowed the “digital divide” or bridged the gap between the wealthy elite who can afford the latest software and the lower classes that do not have the same privileges. As awareness grows among Government officials regarding the economic implications, these resources are becoming restricted. However, these are quickly countered by open rights and privacy advocates who attempt to offset the encroachment of regulatory mandates. The advancements in socializing the Internet and allowing a free exchange of thoughts and ideas are very much similar to Brecht’s view of technology’s use.

Lindbergh’s cult status was on the rise soon after his trans-Atlantic flight. Brecht recognized this and defused its impact by stressing the pilot’s anonymity. This same popularization of individuals translates readily into the open source culture, though to less a degree and in a different manner from most popular figures. There is a noticeable tendency among coders to idealize an open source cult leader. Though highly discouraged by those same open source advocates, even to the point of self-deprecation, they are sometimes still viewed as heroes, and the success of their software programs is reflective of their own character. Just as the pilot is easily identified as Charles Lindbergh, who became an icon to many, he remained modest of his achievements. However, it was more Lindbergh’s achievement that kept him in the limelight, rather than the person.

Brecht also discussed the concept behind critical attitudes in art and whether these constitute a negative impact on one’s performance. In other words, Brecht supported the idea that one should bring a critical eye to artistic endeavors. When handled in a critical manner, even art can be seen in a positive manner. In the last paragraph of his treatise “Neue Technik der Schauspielkunst” Brecht addressed this same tendency to use critique in a positive manner. “Um diese kritische Haltung in die Kunst einzuführen muß man das zweifellos vorhandene negative Moment in seiner Positivität zeigen: diese Kritik an der Welt ist eine active, handelnde, positive Kritik.” Just as Brecht critiqued his and others’ works, his overarching purpose was to bring to light the artistic positive element. Though Brecht’s own criticisms often did extend to his own person, the analogy behind his critiques and that of open source falls short in this aspect. The same concept of critical analysis, whether it is of one’s self or of others’ works, applies here.

A similar tendency can be see among leaders within the open source community. The creation of cult figures among open source advocates is akin to Lindbergh’s rise to cult status. Linus Torvalds, Larry Wall, Richard M. Stallman and even Eric S. Raymond have risen to nearly heroic heights, the person sometimes surpassing his achievements. Raymond himself has observed a tendency among other programmers to esteem the open source project leaders above the projects themselves. These project leaders often exercise self-criticism to draw attention away from themselves and to focus it back on their own works.

I have personally observed that the self-deprecating behavior of some leading hackers reflects a real (and not unjustified) fear of becoming the object of a personality cult. Linus Torvalds and Larry Wall both provide clear and numerous examples of such avoidance behavior.[44]

However, this is not in keeping with the true objectives of open source. Should any project leaders become too fixated on their own popularity, they run the risk of losing their constituents. Such was also the case with Brecht, who was careful to keep many of his relationships with his collaborators on a professional level. His ability to solicit feedback from those with whom he worked, corresponded and otherwise associated with only enhanced his personal status and helped to improve his works.

One of the most notable similarities between Brecht’s Lehrstücke and the traits typical of open source projects is the communal nature of the work. In Der Ozeanflug, the pilot acknowledged the work that had gone into the building of the plane. He recognized his fellow laborers at the factory had worked long, hard hours and that he was obliged to do the same. Brecht stressed the Marxist ideal of a cooperative spirit among workers. This also underlies the utopian ideals Brecht expressed in his Radiotheorie, a notion that many open source advocates stress as well. The communal nature of the airplane’s construction and the effort by the workers to ensure the pilot’s safety is analogous to projects undertaken by computer programmers.

As Brecht illustrated in his radio play, many were working behind the scenes on related projects so that others might benefit from their efforts. This is shown in the examples of those who constructed Lindbergh’s airplane. However, while the workers back home profited only tangentially through association, developers and other programmers can actually use their finished products. The applications are close at hand and function better on account of improved coding and collaboration among the developers. This includes actual use and distribution of code as well as peer recognition, a factor that often went unnoticed with Brecht’s colleagues who provided him help or literary assistance,

In summary, Brecht observed the emergence of radio as a tool through which he could instruct the general public. He was initially critical of radio’s use, but hoped through his Lehrstücke he might refashion it into a more profitable tool. He envisioned radio as an instrument for creating a dialogue between listener and sender rather than it functioning as a simple mechanism for audio distribution of propaganda. Brecht attempted, through his radio play Der Ozeanflug, to provide instruction in how this might be accomplished. Using mechanical sounds and audible representations of inanimate objects, along with the pilot’s example, Brecht conveyed a sense of how a dialogue might occur. This was perhaps Brecht’s most successful representation of a Lehrstück that assimilated technology into its core.

It is conceivable to say Brecht’s concept of a radio dialogue and the integration of technology into communications has been partly realized with the advent of the Internet. His utopian and Marxist visions have found a foothold in open source software. Here a communal spirit governs nearly all projects and programmers offer their code to all in an altruistic fashion. It is the esteem of their peers along with a stable and productive final product that encourages most to share the code they write. Just as Brecht did, open source programmers utilize the skills of those around them to assist in refining their final products. In the end, all benefit from the joint effort.